0.0 EXECUTIVE SUMMARY
0.1 Program Objectives and Participants
0.1.1 The Pan-Arctic Region: Highlights of the Literature Review
0.1.1.1 Behavior and Fate of Oil in the Arctic
0.1.1.2 VECs and Ecotoxicity
0.1.2 Role of Ecosystem Consequence Analyses in NEBA Applications for the Arctic
0.1.2.1 Arctic Population Resiliency and Potential for Recovery
0.2 Priority Recommendations to Enhance NEBA Applications in the Arctic
0.2.1 Development of ARCAT Matrices
0.2.2 Influence of Oil on Unique Arctic Communities
0.2.3 Biodegradation in Unique Communities
0.2.4 Modeling of Acute and Chronic Population Effects of Exposure to OSRs
0.3 Further Information
1.0 THE PHYSICAL ENVIRONMENT
1.1 Introduction
1.1.1 The Arctic Ocean, Marginal Seas, and Basins
1.2 Knowledge Status
1.2.1 The Circumpolar Margins
1.2.2 Arctic Hydrography
1.2.3 Ice And Ice-Edges
1.2.4 Seasonality: Productivity and the Carbon Cycle in the Arctic
1.3 Future Research Considerations
1.3.1 Priority Recommendations to Enhance NEBA Applications in the Arctic
1.4 Further Information
2.0 ARCTIC ECOSYSTEMS AND VALUABLE RESOURCES
2.1 Introduction
2.2 Knowledge Status
2.2.1 Habitats of the Arctic
2.2.2 Arctic Food Webs
2.2.2.1 Pelagic Communities
2.2.2.2 Benthic and Demersal Communities
2.2.2.2 Sea-ice Communities
2.2.2.4 Mammals and Birds
2.2.2.5 Communities of Special Significance
2.2.3 Pelagic Realm
2.2.3.1 Phytoplankton
2.2.3.2 Zooplankton
2.2.3.3 Neuston
2.2.3.4 Other Pelagic Invertebrates
2.2.3.4.1 Krill
2.2.3.4.2 Amphipods
2.2.3.4.3 Cephalopods
2.2.3.4.4 Jellyfish
2.2.3.5 Fish
2.2.3.5.1 Pelagic Fish
2.2.3.5.2 Anadromous Fish
2.2.3.5.3 Demersal Fish
2.2.3.5.4 Deep-Sea Fish
2.2.3.6 Marine Mammals
2.2.3.6.1 Bowhead Whale (Balaena mysticetus)
2.2.3.6.2 White Whale (Delphinapterus Leucas)
2.2.3.6.3 Narwhal (Monodon monoceros)
2.2.3.6.4 Ice Seals
2.2.3.6.5 Walrus (Odobenus rosmarus)
2.2.3.6.6 Orca Whales (Orcinus orca)
2.2.3.6.7 Polar Bear (Ursus maritimus)
2.2.3.7 Birds
2.2.3.7.1 Black-legged kittiwakes (Rissa tridactyla)
2.2.3.7.2 Black Guillemots (Cepphus grille)
2.2.3.7.3 Thick billed Murres (Uria lomvia)
2.2.3.7.4 Northern Fulmar (Fulmarus glacialis)
2.2.3.7.5 Common Eider (Somateria mollissima)
2.2.3.7.6 Little Auk/Dovekie (Alle alle)
2.2.3.7.7 Glaucous gull (Larus glaucescens)
2.2.3.7.8 Arctic jaeger (Stercorarius parasiticus)
2.2.4 Benthic Realm
2.2.4.1 Intertidal Communities
2.2.4.2 Shelf and Deepwater Communities
2.2.4.3 Mollusca
2.2.4.4 Polychaetes
2.2.4.5 Amphipods
2.2.4.6 Decapod Crustaceans
2.2.4.7 Echinoderms
2.2.5 Sea-Ice Realm
2.2.5.1 Ice Algae
2.2.5.2 Sympagic Copepods
2.2.5.3 Ice Amphipods
2.2.5.4 Pelagic Copepods
2.2.5.5 Sympagic Fish
2.2.5.6 Mammals
2.2.5.7 Birds
2.2.6 VECs of Arctic Marine Environments
2.2.6.1 Seasonal Distribution Patterns of Arctic Marine Populations
2.3 Future Research Considerations
2.3.1 Priority Recommendations to Enhance NEBA Applications in the Arctic
2.4 Further Information
3.0 THE TRANSPORT AND FATE OF OIL IN THE ARCTIC
3.1 Introduction
3.2 Knowledge Status
3.2.1 Weathering of Oil Spilled in Ice
3.2.2 Oil in Ice Interactions
3.2.3 Oil on Arctic Shorelines
3.2.4 Oil-Sediment Interactions
3.3 Future Research Considerations
3.3.1 Priority Recommendations for Enhanced NEBA Applications in the Arctic
3.4 Further Information
4.0 OIL SPILL RESPONSE STRATEGIES
4.1 Introduction
4.1.1 Environmental Uniqueness of the Arctic Region in Relation to OSR
4.2 Knowledge Status - Impact of OSRs
4.2.1 Natural Attentuation
4.2.1.1 Potential Environmental Impact of Untreated Oil
4.2.1.2 Conclusions on Natural Attenuation
4.2.2 Mechanical Recovery and Containment
4.2.2.1 Environmental impacts from Mechanical Recovery and Containment
4.2.2.2 Conclusions
4.2.3 In-Situ Burning and Chemical Herders
4.2.3.1 Potential environmental and human health effects of ISB residues and unburnt oil
4.2.3.2 Environmental Impact of Herders
4.2.3.3 Conclusions on ISB and Herders
4.2.4 Improving Dispersion of Oil
4.2.4.1 Impact of Chemically Dispersed Oil
4.2.4.2 Conclusions on Chemical Dispersion
4.2.4.3 Dispersing Oil using Oil Mineral Aggregates (OMA)
4.2.4.4 Environmental Impact of OMA formation
4.2.4.5 Conclusions on OMA
4.3 Future Research Considerations
4.3.1 Priority Recommendations for Enhanced NEBA Applications in the Arctic
4.4 Further Information
5.0 BIODEGRADATION
5.1 Introduction
5.1.1 The Microbiology of the Arctic Oceans
5.1.1.1 Transport routes
5.1.1.2 Microbial populations in the Arctic Ocean
5.1.2 Microbial Adaptation to Arctic Conditions
5.1.2.1 Low temperature and microbial adaptions
5.1.2.2 Light and microbial phototrophs
5.1.2.3 Marine ice and microbial survival and metabolism
5.2 Knowledge Status
5.2.1 Biodegradation of Oil in Cold Marine Environments
5.2.1.1 Types of Crude Oils
5.2.1.2 Surface oil spills
5.2.1.2.1 Evaporation
5.2.1.2.2 Water solubility
5.2.1.2.3 Photooxidation
5.2.1.2.4 Sedimentation
5.2.1.2.5 Water-in-oil emulsification
5.2.1.2.6 Natural dispersion
5.2.1.2.7 Oil films
5.2.1.3 Microbial Oil-Degrading Populations in Cold Water Environments
5.2.1.3.1 Indigenous Microorganism Populations
5.2.1.3.2 Population Effects on Oil Degradation
5.2.1.4 Hydrocarbon biodegradation in cold marine environments
5.2.1.4.1 Seawater
5.2.1.4.2 Sediments and soils
5.2.1.4.3 Sea ice
5.2.1.5 Modeling of biodegradation
5.2.1.5.1 Biodegradation in oil spill models
5.2.1.5.2 Biodegradation modeling and temperature
5.2.1.6 Determination of Biodegradation
5.2.1.6.1 Analytical methods for oil compound analyses
5.2.1.6.2 Experimental apparatus
5.2.1.6.3 Biodegradation data processing
5.2.1.7 Persistent Oil Compounds
5.2.2 Accelerated Biodegradation
5.2.2.1 Biostimulation
5.2.2.1.1 Shoreline sediments
5.2.2.1.2 Seawater
5.2.2.1.3 Marine ice
5.2.2.2 Bioaugmentation
5.2.2.3 Understanding Processes in Accelerated Biodegradation
5.3 Future Research Considerations
5.3.1 Priority Recommendations for Enhanced NEBA Applications in the Arctic
5.4 Further Information
6.0 ECOTOXICOLOGY OF OIL AND TREATED OIL IN THE ARCTIC
6.1 Introduction
6.1.1 General Methods and Relevant Endpoints in Laboratory Testing
6.1.1.1 Test Exposure
6.1.1.2 Test Media Preparation
6.1.1.2.1 Water Soluble Fractions (WSF)
6.1.1.2.2 Water Accommodated Fractions (WAF, CEWAF)
6.1.1.2.3 Oil-in-Water Dispersions (Oil Droplets)
6.1.1.2.4 Oil Type/Weathering
6.1.1.2.5 Exposure Concentrations
6.1.1.2.6 Test Organisms
6.1.1.2.7 Test Endpoints and Exposures
6.1.1.2.8 Data Extrapolation and Population Models
6.2 Knowledge Status
6.2.1 Species represented in the data set
6.2.2 Arctic ecosystem compartments in the dataset
6.2.2.1 Pack ice
6.2.2.2 Pelagic
6.2.2.3 Benthic
6.2.3 Review by Taxa
6.2.3.1 Phytoplankton and seaweed
6.2.3.2 Mysids
6.2.3.3 Copepods
6.2.3.4 Amphipods
6.2.3.5 Benthic organisms
6.2.3.6 Fish
6.3 Discussion
6.3.1 Petroleum related components
6.3.1.1 Crude oil
6.3.1.2 Single PAH
6.3.2 Chemically dispersed oil versus physically dispersed oil
6.3.3 Are Arctic species more sensitive than temperate species?
6.4 Future Research Considerations
6.4.1 Priority Recommendations to Enhance NEBA Applications in the Arctic
6.5 Further Information
7.0 POPULATION EFFECTS MODELING
7.1 Introduction
7.2 Knowledge Status
7.2.1 Parameters Needed to Assess Potential Responses of VECs to Environmental Stressors
7.2.1.1 Transport and fate / exposure potential
7.2.1.2 Oil toxicity evaluations / sensitivity
7.2.1.3 Population distributions, stressors, and mortality rates
7.2.2 Copepod Population Ecology
7.2.2.1 Copepod Growth and Development
7.2.2.2 Summary of Arctic and Sub-Arctic Copepod Species
7.2.3 Copepod Populations
7.2.4 Arctic Fish Population Ecology
7.2.4.1 Arctic Fish Species Diversity
7.2.4.2 Representative Fish Species
7.2.5 Application of Population Models
7.3 Future Research Considerations
7.3.1 Priority Recommendations to Enhance NEBA Applications in the Arctic
7.4 Further Information
8.0 ECOSYSTEM RECOVERY
8.1 Introduction
8.2 Knowledge Status
8.2.1 Resilience and Potential for Recovery
8.3 Future Research Considerations
8.3.1 Priority Recommendations for Enhanced NEBA Applications in the Arctic
8.4 Further Information
9.0 NET ENVIRONMENTAL BENEFIT ANALYSES FOR OIL SPILL
9.1 Introduction
9.2 Knowledge Status
9.2.1 Importance of NEBA Development for Arctic Regions
9.2.2 Scope and Applicability
9.2.3 Information Required to Utilize the NEBA Process
9.2.3.1 Potential oil spill scenarios
9.2.3.2 Response resources available
9.2.4 Ecological Resources at Risk
9.2.5 Social and Economic Relevance
9.2.6 Historical uses of NEBA and Case Studies
9.2.6.1 Assessing response strategy effectiveness and estimating oil fate and transport
9.2.6.2 Assessing the potential impacts and resource recovery rates
9.2.7 Historical Spills that Used or Informed NEBA Processes
9.2.7.1 A. Experimental: Baffin Island tests in northern Canada
9.2.7.2 B. Experimental: TROPICS study
9.2.7.3 C. Tanker: Braer Spill
9.2.7.4 D. Tanker: Sea Empress spill
9.2.7.5 E. Well Blowout: Montara spill (also known as the West Atlas Spill)
9.2.8 Potential Challenges to Applying NEBA Processes in the Arctic Environment
9.3 Future Research Considerations
9.3.1 Priority Recommendations for Enhanced NEBA Applications in the Arctic
9.4 Further Information
APPENDIX: USE OF NEDRA IN CONNECTION TO OIL SPILL CONTINGENCY PLANNING IN NORWAY
10.0 SUPPORTING REPORTS

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6.3.1 Petroleum related components

6.3.1.1 Crude oil

Approximately 56 studies have been conducted with crude oil. There have been a number of different oil types included in the different testing programs, as well as different types of preparations with untreated (soluble fraction or physically dispersed) or treated oil (chemical dispersant or ISB). Peer-reviewed studies with photochemically enhanced toxicity (photooxidation) with Arctic species are not available. However, photoenhanced toxicity of physically and chemically dispersed Alaska North Slope crude oil has been evaluated with Pacific herring eggs and larvae (Clupea pallasi; Barron et al. 2003).

Exposure systems vary between studies although there is an increasing trend to harmonize the approaches between laboratories. Studies have been conducted as continuous or declining exposures, with WAF, dispersed WAF, or physical dispersions. It is noteworthy that relatively few types of chemical dispersants have been used in toxicity studies, primarily Corexit®9500 and Dasic Slickgone. The vast majority of the exposures were waterborne and five studies were diet borne exposures.

Relatively few studies have included weathered oil. There are some studies (e.g. Hansen et al. (in prep) have tested weathered and unweathered oil with the copepod C. finmarchicus. Given that OSR response times may be delayed in the Arctic due to the potential distances and inclement weather, this should be a future focus of study.

6.3.1.2 Single PAH

Single PAH toxicity data are an important component in developing predictive models and for comparing effects between different OSR alternatives. Most studies performed with single compounds included 2-methyl naphthalene, naphthalene, and pyrene. Fewer studies have evaluated benzo(a)pyrene and phenanthrene and primarily when evaluating uptake and tissue residues. The naphthalene compounds are often included in testing programs since they are predominant in the crude oil and are known to elicit most of the acute toxicity. Pyrene and benzo(a)pyrene have been used as model compounds to study a specific biological mechanism (uptake rate, metabolism, enzyme induction).

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6.3.1 Petroleum related components

6.3.1.1 Crude oil

6.3.1.2 Single PAH

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